Apply Project Scope Management Techniques - 1975 Words

Apply project scope management techniques: 1. What is scope management and why is it critical to effective project management? Who is usually involved in developing the scope (or charter) document? Scope management can be defined as the function of creating and overseeing the projects scope. It is critical to have a well-defined scope so an effective project manager can understand what the justification for the project was and who instigated while highlighting the businesses need for it, the clear objectives of the project and what product or results it will produce The project scope will also show the acceptance criteria that must be met by the project, how the effectiveness of the project will be measured and what the acceptance criteria will be. The document goes on to highlight what the project excludes and what it will not accomplish, the constraints of the project whether they be time or funding or both and finally any assumptions that are taken when producing the document. To develop the Scope usually requires the input of the project manager who writes the first draft it but also there must be input from those wo requested the project and the project team as well (project sponsor and key stake holders). Only once agreement has been meet between these parties can a project scope be issued 2. Think about your current or most recent project. Describe the process you should use to incorporate proposed (and actual) changes to the project scope During theShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Wembley Stadium Project Management1454 Words   |  6 PagesA project is a temporary endeavour that creates a unique result. Time, budget, resources, and performance specifications, to meet requirements made by stakeholders, limit a project (Project Management Institute, 2013, pg.3). Project management is the application of tools, techniques, and knowledge to help achieve the three main constraints of scope, cost and time (Project Management Institute, 2013, pg.5). This applies managerial process and gives project managers the opportunity to make a projectRead MoreProject Management Chapter 5 Q A Essay1080 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ CHAPTER 5 Project Scope Management DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is involved in project scope management, and why is good project scope management so important on information technology projects? Scope refers to all the work involved in creating the products of the project and the processed used to create them. Project scope management includes scope planning, scope definition, WBS creation, scope verification, and scope control. It’ important to Information Technology because it isRead MoreTriple Constraint Essays1279 Words   |  6 PagesConstraint? The triple constraint of project management is the balance of the project’s scope, time and cost. Triple constraint is used to determine whether or not a project’s objectives are being met. During the planning phase of a project, a project manager will define the scope, time, and cost of a project. As the planning phase continues, the project manager discovers that there may be some changes or adjustments needed in the project’s scope, time and/or cost. When one aspect needs changeRead MoreRisks Associated With Construction Project And Different Risk Mitigation Techniques1573 Words   |  7 PagesConstruction projects are characterized as very complex projects, where uncertainty comes from various sources. This paper deals with the identification of risk by different methods, types of risks associated with construction project and different risk mitigation techniques. In the construction industry, risk is often referred to as the presence of potential or actual threats or opportunities that influence the objectives of a project during construction, commissioning, or at time of use. Risk isRead MoreRequirements And Requirements For Business Programs839 Words   |  4 Pagesand time are delegated the project scope (Schedlbauer, 2015). There are diverse techniques to garner these requirements in the business. According to Blain (2006), BABoK (Business Analyst Body of Knowledge) these ten techniques entails brainstorming, document analysis, focus group, interface analysis, interview, observation, prototyping, requirements workshop, reverse engineering and survey. Each technique may apply all the time or one may work best for a particular project. Requirements establishedRead MoreA Project Manager For A Company That Utilizes Informal Project Management Techniques948 Words   |  4 Pages1. You are a project manager for a company that utilizes informal project management techniques. Thirty days into the project you realize that the team is not communicating effectively and dates are starting to slip. What two actions might you take to correct this situation? Communication is one of the four columns of informal project management. If communication channels are not been used, or if information is not flowing effectively and efficiently, then the whole methodology is compromised,Read MoreProject Management : A Solid Change Management Plan1027 Words   |  5 PagesIn project management, a solid change management plan must always be in place. Developing the plan will assist in properly tackling the changes that may ascend during the project with the two important components: scope and scheduling risks. The scope statement prepared prior to the project, focuses on the goals, the deliverables, and requirements. The three elements jointly have a role in the scope statement which will document the work and the structure of the project. The goals should targetRead MoreThe Association For Project Management1141 Words   |  5 PagesThe Association for Project Management (APM) published the first edition of the APM body of knowledge (APM Bok) in 1992. The reason for publishing APM Bok was because, PMBOK ® does not elaborate upon knowledge of interpersonal skills and interaction with the stakeholders. In 2012, APM Body of Knowledge 6th edition was published, and unlike the old version, the 6th edition is based on analysis of the functions rather than on a project life cycle. APM Body of Knowledge 6th edition provides the standardRead MoreAgile Project Management : Shanaz Sithara Mohamed Samsudeen1212 Words   |  5 Pages– IT PROJECT MANAGEMENT - Shanaz Sithara Mohamed Samsudeen Agile movement as it applies to software development and other types of projects. The world is a global village. Change is the only constant that prevails. This has increased the need to be more adaptive to the challenges (changes) that are put forth. In project management, the need to be flexible has grown than ever before to turn the project successful. They have to meet with several constraints at different phases of the project whichRead MoreA Study On The Strategy Estimation1022 Words   |  5 Pagesjudgmental estimation since this particular project estimation method is driven around taking expert opinion and by understanding the strategic project requirements. The results are fast since expert opinion is driven through various elements while accuracy of estimations is not always certain due to project complexity. The experts are pooled from operations, business and management team so as to drive the right level of estimation knowledge for any given project as per the business strategic requirement

The Between Jung s Personality Theory And Costa And...

The Contrast between Jung s Personality Theory and Costa and McCrae s Trait Theory. The purpose of this paper is to describe Peter’s behaviour according to Jung’s personality theory in contrast with Costa McCrae’s trait theory. Jung s personality theory focuses heavily on the unconscious and how people s dreams are interpreted for one to truly realise their true self (Papadopoulos, 2006, p. 8). Costa McCrae s trait theory scores a person s behaviour on numerous traits that comes together to predict their personality (McCrae John, 2006). Peter is in dilemma over whether he should quit his job and become a primary care-giver due to the negative emotions he is experiencing but is also afraid of going against society norms and how they will judge him. Jung was a psychoanalytical theorist who suggested that personality is influenced by factors deep in the unconscious such as dreams and fantasies (Papadopoulos, 2006, p. 8). His main therapeutic outcome is for people to go through the individuation process in order to realise who they truly are in relation to other and apart from others (Schultz Schultz, 2012, p. 115). He believed the psyche was comprised of the ego and two different levels of the unconscious; the personal and collective unconscious. The ego contains a person’s awareness of their emotions, memories and thoughts. The personal unconscious is comprised of repressed or forgotten memories, knowledge and experience (Crellin, 2004, p. 5). Jung also talksShow MoreRelatedThe Role Of Individual Differences Within The Own Management Practices And Ob Outcomes2156 Words   |  9 Pagespractices and OB outcomes. Introduction What is Personality? Personality is a series of characteristic thoughts, feelings and behaviour that differentiates one human being to another and that continues over time and situation (Phares, 1991). According to Ryckman, Personality is the sum of biologically based and learnt behaviour which comprises and forms the person’s particular responses to environmental stimuli (Ryckman, 1982). The concept of personality cannot be scientifically understood and henceRead MoreCarl Jung s Theory Of Human Beings Experience1473 Words   |  6 PagesCarl Jung proposed a typological theory that speculated that human beings experience the world in four key psychological functions that include thinking, sensation, feeling and intuition (Kaplan Saccuzzo, 2009). Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the psychological functions can further be categorized into cognitive functions that exist in two dichotomous pairs. The pairs are rational (or judging), which entail feeling and thinking and irrational (or perceiving), which entail intuitionRead MoreDifference Between Personality And Personality Theories2640 Words   |  11 Pagesdifferences in individuals using their minds in different ways. Every personality represents a unique combination of psychological characteristics that result in specific patterns of behaviour. Personality theories are concerned with observing and meas uring individual characteristics, understanding how those different characteristics evolved and how they impact the quality of life through behaviour (Ewen, 2013). Psychodynamic theories of human behaviour assume that human lives are ruled by internal unconsciousRead MoreThe Myers Briggs Type Indicator Essay2255 Words   |  10 PagesIndicator (MBTI) is a self-report personality assessment developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers based on the typological personality theory of Carl Jung. The MBTI is comprised of four dichotomous nominal scales: Introversion/Extroversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, Judgment/Perception. These four scales assign individuals one of sixteen personality types. While the measures of the MBTI themselves are taxonomies, the assigned personality type is a typology- meaning, anRead MorePersonality and Ethics8599 Words   |  35 Pagesand counting (Nasser, 2011). And not a single person is without a personality. Our personality is w hat makes who we are, what we do, who we interact with and how we live our life. It is a vital aspect that drives most of the decisions and choices an individual makes in his lifespan, and throughout this lifespan, the individual’s personality are tempered by external factors. In spite of all that, the nature of an individual’s personality still commands a degree of stability across time and situationsRead MoreHuman Development and The Psychoanalytic Perspective of Personality1396 Words   |  6 PagesThe psychoanalytic perspective of personality sheds light on human development in terms of drives and inner motives, which are of the unconscious mind and sexual instincts as well as stem from childhood experiences of which can be revealed through dreams, free association, and slips of the tongue; nonetheless, if there conflict between motives it will indeed construct defense mechanisms (of which range from denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation, regression , repression, sublimationRead MorePersonality Theories And Trait Theories2232 Words   |  9 PagesThe entire notion of Personality rests upon a number of assumptions: 1) that traits and types exist 2) that traits and types are stable over time 3) that these traits and types are consistent across different situations. At least two of these assumptions are so problematic that they challenge the very existence of Personality. Critically evaluate this statement. Personality, a word first coined in the C14th, has so broad a meaning that its definition varies significantly depending on which theoreticalRead MoreThe Fundamental Discussions On Personality Development3439 Words   |  14 PagesIntroduction The fundamental discussions on personality development have a common core; that core being the nature versus nurture controversy. Every relevant theory to personality development has had something to do with whether or the individual, the self, the personality, is constructed from biological determinants or if everything that happens in one’s life is what shapes the personality.  The Various Theories Nature, when viewed from a psychological perspective, is a term employed to characterizeRead MoreA Typical Familial Life Stem From The Biological Perspective Of The Individual1540 Words   |  7 Pagesuseful for thinking, processing, reasoning, and several other prime functions of the brain. With this information, the individual is able â€Å"to more effectively engage the neurocognitive processes associated with this network† (Beaty, Kaufman, Benedek, Jung, Kenett, Jauk, Neubauer, and Silvia, 2015, p. 778). To go along with this, other studies have shown that creativity is one of the main components of openness to experience. Creative individuals, like artists and scientists, actively use this area ofRead MorePersonality Theories5586 Words   |  23 PagesPersonality Theories Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality. Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of

Lessons John Griffin Learned In Black Like Me Essay Example For Students

Lessons John Griffin Learned In Black Like Me Essay Black Like Me by John Howard Griffin is a Multicultural story set in the southaround the late 1950s in first person point of view about John Griffin in 1959in the deep south of the east coast, who is a novelist that decides to get hisskin temporarily darkened medically to black. What Griffin hopes to achieve isenough information about the relationships between blacks and whites to write abook about it.The overall main obstacle is society, and the racial divide in thesouth with the whites. John begins his journey in New Orleans where he gets hisfirst taste of what it is like to be black. He meets a shoeshiner named SterlingWilliams who gives Griffin friendship, and the opportunity to be incorporated inthe African American society. While in New Orleans, Griffin discussed raceissues with other African Americans. John was harassed by some whitesupremacists, while with Negroes, was treated with courtesies, even by strangers. When Griffin gets news that a white jury rejected a case of a black lynching,Griffin decides to go to the heart of the deep south, Mississippi to check itout. Even with the risk of his life, Griffin decides to take a bus to Hattiesburginto the deep south to check out the lynching case. At the bus station, Griffinacquired hate stares from many whites on the benches waiting for their buses. Griffin boarded the bus, and during the trip he conversed with a man namedChristophe, and when the white passengers got off the bus during the rest stop,the bus driver prevented the Negro passengers from departing. The Negroes wereabout to urinate all over the bus, but they decided it would just be anotherthing for the whites to hold against blacks. They arrived in Hattiesburg andJohn took a cab to a hotel to rest. In the hotel, Griffin tried to write aletter to his family, but there were too many things blocking his mind. Afterwards, Griffin called P.D. East, a white friend who writes in a blacknewspaper in Mobile and visited his family for a while. Continuing his trip toMontgomery, he covered a long distance with the help from passing white drivers(some wereperverted) who gave him rides during the night time. When Griffin waskicked off the car, he was left a far distance from everything. He reached asmall convince store on the road, in which the owners would not let him in untilhe begged them. As he walked on, a young black male offered him a ride and aplace to sleep in his house with his wife and six children. Later that evening,Griffin had a reoccurring nightmare about white men and women, with their facesof heartlessness staring at him. As Griffin was about to leave, he tried to givemoney to the family for his gratitude, but they would no accept it, so he justleft the money there. Griffin then hitchhiked to a small bus station and boughta ticket to Montgomery. When he got to Montgomery, he called his wife andchildren and then changed back to white. Griffin also witnessed a skirmish onthe bus when 2 blacks would not move into 1 seat, so a white women could sitdown. A large white man was about to hurt someone, but the white women told himto stop. Griffin had enough of this and changed back to white in the stationrestroom. Afterwards, he called the Sepia ( A News Paper ) editors and made anappointment for a story in New Orleans with a photographer. After the story wasdone, he flew to Mansfield as a white man to be in an editorial conference. ThenGriffin flew to Hollywood for a TV show, New York for an interview in Timemagazine and many other places for stories. Griffins mother started to get hatecalls from some of the people in town, and the Griffins got police surveillanceon their house just in case. .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .postImageUrl , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:hover , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:visited , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:active { border:0!important; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:active , .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4 .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u16c5938e3f77fc63410f2550df074ee4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Psychology And Music Violence EssayWhen Griffin was kicked off the car, he was left a far distance from everything. He reached a small convince store on the road, in which the owners would not lethim in until he begged them. As he walked on, a young black male offered him aride and a place to sleep in his house with his wife and six children. Laterthat evening, Griffin had a reoccurring nightmare about white men and women,with their faces of heartlessness staring at him. As Griffin was about to leave,he tried to give money to the family for his gratitude, but they would no acceptit, so he just left the money there. Griffin then hitchhiked to a small busstation and bought a ticket to Montgomery. When he got to Montgomery, he calledhis wife and children and then changed back to white. Griffin also witnessed askirmish on the bus when 2 blacks would not move into 1 seat, so a white womencould sit down. A large white man was about to hurt someone, but the white womentold him to stop. Griffin had enough of this and changed back to white in thestation restroom. Afterwards, he called the Sepia ( A News Pa per ) editors andmade an appointment for a story in New Orleans with a photographer. After thestory was done, he flew to Mansfield as a white man to be in an editorialconference. Then Griffin flew to Hollywood for a TV show, New York for aninterview in Time magazine and many other places for stories. Griffins motherstarted to get hate calls from some of the people in town, and the Griffins gotpolice surveillance on their house just in case.

Tips to Find and Apply to High School Internships

Internships are no longer just attractive to college students. They are increasingly appealing to high school students as a way to explore potential academic paths and career options in a real world setting. Bhenrique, a student at UC Berkeley, was fortunate enough to have the opportunity to intern with the STEM office at the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (DESE) when he was a high school student. He had the chance to observe and get hands-on with the effort that goes into providing public education. Because of his experience, he offers his insight and advice for high school students who are also looking for internship opportunities: 1. Search for Internships Online Typically, students looking for internships can do so online and find posted positions on the websites of specific companies, labs or start ups. Some of these internship opportunities are research based, like the Broad Institute Internship, while others are more traditional office internships. Either one would provide students with incredible experience and give you an opportunity to learn more about your intended major or career choice. 2. Choose Based on Your Interests Because you’ll get such valuable experience, I would recommend doing research or internships within your predicted major. For example, work at a hospital if you’re interested in studying pre-med or nursing, or work at an education nonprofit if you are interested in being a teacher. No only will this be beneficial to help you build your professional skills, but it will also help you discover how much you actually enjoy working these fields. 3. Take Initiative Just because an internship isn’t posted doesn’t mean there isn’t one available. I personally was not aware that you could intern for the DESE until I told my teacher that I was interested in an internship. Do your research and show your interest and it may materialize if you inquire about it. For example, you could find research projects at local colleges and email the professor running the research. A friend of mine emailed a professor at a college near his home about joining in on a physics research over the summer. The professor decided to take him on to the team after an interview, even though he didn’t initially have plans to bring on a high school student. (And these success stories aren’t rare!) 4. Talk to Your Guidance Counselor Some high schools have partnerships with colleges to help place high school students into internship programs. Even without these partnerships, your counselor can always reach out to their network or keep an eye out for an opportunity that might be a good fit. 5. It Never Hurts to Ask If you take anything away from this, it should be this: it never hurts to ask. The worst that can happen is that there is no high school internship opportunities. Having said that, you should also be prepared to take on the work if there is an opportunity. Be courteous and be grateful they are willing to give you the chance to join their team. As a Physics major now at UC Berkeley, I too have emailed professors and experts across the country asking to do research and I have had the chance to collaborate with many of them on building my own Quantum Physics Curriculum. Like college, where often research goes to those who ask for it, high school is very much the same where those who email may truly reap the benefits of clicking send. Have any other questions? UnlockBhenriques UC Berkeley college profileto learn more about his college application journey. Looking for more successful application examples or tips on landing a summer internship? Upgrade to one of ourpremium subscriptionstoaccess our searchable database of successful college applications and advice.

Frogs Essays - Amphibians, Frog, Chorus Frogs, Pickerel Frog

Frogs Essays - Amphibians, Frog, Chorus Frogs, Pickerel Frog Frogs A Frog is a small, tail less animal that has bulging eyes. Almost all frogs have long back legs. The strong hind legs make the frog able to leap farther than the length of its body. Frogs live on every continent except Antarctica, but tropical regions have the greatest number of species. Frogs are classified as amphibians. Most amphibians, including most frogs, spend part of their life as a water animal and part as a land animal. Frogs are related to toads, but are different from them in a few ways. The giant frog of west-central Africa ranks as the largest frog. It measures nearly a foot (30 centimeters) long. The smallest species grow only 1/2 inch (1.3 centimeters) long. Frogs also differ in color. Most kinds are green or brown, but some have colorful markings. Although different species may vary in size or color, almost all frogs have the same basic body structure. They have large hind legs, short front legs, and a flat head and body with no neck. Adult frogs have no tail, though one North American species has a short, tail like structure. Most frogs have a sticky tongue attached to the front part of the mouth. They can rapidly flip out the tongue to capture prey. Frogs have such internal organs as a heart, liver, lungs, and kidneys. Some of the internal organs differ from those of higher animals. A frog's heart has three chambers instead of four. And although adult frogs breathe by means of lungs, they also breathe through their skin. The eggs of different species vary in size, color, and shape. A jelly like substance covers frog eggs, providing a protective coating. This jelly also differs from species to species. Some species of frogs lay several thousand eggs at a time. But only a few of these eggs develop into adult frogs. Ducks, fish, insects, and other water creatures eat many of the eggs. Even if the eggs hatch, the tadpoles also face the danger of being eaten by larger water animals. The pond or stream in which the eggs were laid sometimes dries up. As a result, the tadpoles die. Certain tropical frogs lay their eggs in rain water that collects among the leaves of plants or in holes in trees. Other tropical species attach their eggs to the underside of leaves that grow over water. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles fall into the water. Among some species, one of the parents carries the eggs until they hatch. For example, the female of certain South American tree frogs carries the eggs on her back. Among another species of frog, the midwife toad, the male carries the eggs wound around his hind legs. Males of another species, Darwin's frog, carry the eggs in their vocal pouch. Some tropical frogs lay their eggs on land. They lay them under logs or dead leaves. These frogs have no tadpole stage. A young frog hatches from the egg and begins life as a land animal. Tadpoles are not completely developed when they hatch. At first, the tadpole clings to some support in the water, using its mouth or a tiny sucker. A tadpole has no neck, and so its head and body look like one round form. The animal has a long tail and resembles a little fish. It breathes by means of gills, which are hidden by a covering of skin. A tadpole's form changes as the animal grows. The tail becomes larger and makes it possible for the animal to swim about to obtain food. Tadpoles eat plants and decaying animal matter. Some tadpoles eat frog eggs and other tadpoles. In time, the tadpole begins to grow legs. The hind legs appear first. Then the lungs begin to develop and the front legs appear. The digestive system changes, enabling the frog that develops to eat live animals. Just before its change into a frog, the tadpole loses its gills. Finally, a tiny frog, still bearing a stump of a tail, comes up from the water. Eventually, the animal absorbs its tail and assumes its adult form. After a frog becomes an adult, it may take a few months to a few years before

Prepping Your Kid for a Test With No Study Guide

Prepping Your Kid for a Test With No Study Guide Its the moment you dread: Your child comes home from school on a Tuesday and tells you that there are a test three days from now over chapter seven. But, since she lost the review guide (for the third time this year), the teacher is making her figure out the content to study without it. You dont want to send her off to her room to study blindly from the textbook; Shell fail! But, you also dont want to do all the work for her. Theres a method that will get your child prepped for that chapter test despite the little misplacement habit shes grown fond of, and even better, she may learn more than she did had she actually used the review guide. Ensure She Learns The Chapter Content Before you study with your kid for the test, youll need to know that shes learned the content of the chapter. Sometimes, kids do not pay attention during class because they know the teacher will be passing out a review guide before the test. Teachers, however, want your kid to actually learn something; they typically put the bare bones of the test content on the review sheets offering a glimpse of the facts shell need to know. Not every test question will be on there! So, youll need to make sure your child has actually grasped the ins and outs of the chapter if she wants to ace the test. An effective way to do it is with a reading and study strategy like SQ3R. The SQ3R Strategy Chances are good that youve heard of the SQ3R Strategy. The method was introduced by Francis Pleasant Robinson in his 1961 book, Effective Study, and remains popular because it enhances reading comprehension and study skills. Kids in third or fourth grade through adults in college can use the strategy solo to grasp and retain complex material from a textbook. Kids younger than that can use the strategy with an adult guiding them through the process. SQ3R utilizes pre-, during and post-reading strategies, and since it builds metacognition, your childs ability to monitor her own learning, its a highly effective tool for every subject in every grade shell encounter. If you happen to be unfamiliar with the method, SQ3R is an acronym that stands for these five active steps your child will take while reading a chapter: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. Survey Your child will browse through the chapter, reading titles, bold-faced words, introduction paragraphs, vocabulary words, subheadings, pictures, and graphics to grasp, in general, the content of the chapter. Question Your child will turn each one of the chapter subheadings into a question on a sheet of paper. When she reads, The Arctic Tundra, shell write, What is the Arctic Tundra?, leaving space underneath for an answer. Read Your child will read the chapter to answer the questions shes just created. She should write her answers in her own words in the space provided. Recite Your child will cover her answers and attempt to answer the questions without referring to the text or her notes. Review Your child will reread portions of the chapter about which she isnt clear. Here, she can also read the questions at the end of the chapter in order to test her knowledge of the content. In order for the SQ3R method to be effective, youll need to teach it to your child. So the first time the review guide goes missing, sit down and go through the process, surveying the chapter with her, helping her form questions, etc. Model it before she dives in so she knows what to do. Ensure She Retains The Chapter Content So, after applying the reading strategy, youre fairly confident that she understands what shes read, and can answer the questions youve created together. She has a solid knowledge base, but there are still three days before the test! Wont she forget whats shes learned? Its a great idea to have her learn the answers to the questions prior to the test, but in reality, drilling will force those specific questions, but nothing else, into your kids head. Besides, what if the teacher asks different questions than the ones youve learned together? Your child will learn more in the long run by getting a learning combo meal with knowledge as the main course and some higher-order thinking as a tasty side. Venn Diagrams Venn diagrams are perfect tools for kids in that they allow your child to process information and analyze it quickly and easily. If youre not aware of the term, a Venn diagram is a figure made of two interlocking circles. Comparisons are made in the space where the circles overlap; contrasts are defined in the space where the circles do not. A couple of days prior to the exam, hand your child a Venn Diagram and write one of the topics from the chapter on top of the left circle, and a correlative topic from your childs life on the other. For instance, if the chapter test is about biomes, write Tundra above one of the circles and the biome in which you live above the other. Or, if shes learning about Life on Plymouth Plantation, she could compare and contrast that with Life in the Smith Household. With this diagram, shes attaching new ideas to parts of her life with which shes already familiar, which helps her build meaning. A cold page filled with facts doesnt seem real, but when compared to something she knows, the new data suddenly crystallizes into something tangible. So, when she steps outside into the brilliant sunshine of a warm day, she may consider how cold a person might feel in the Arctic Tundra. Or the next time she uses a microwave to make popcorn, she may think about the difficulty of food acquisition on the Plymouth Plantation. Vocabulary Writing Prompts Another creative way to help your child gain a complete understanding of the textbook chapter for that big test coming up is with synthesis. This higher-order thinking skill can certainly help cement information from the textbook directly into your childs brain better than straight memorization can. An enjoyable, effortless way to have your child synthesize info is with a snazzy writing prompt. Heres how to set it up: As your child surveyed the chapter, she shouldve noticed the bold-faced vocabulary words scattered throughout. Lets say the chapter was about the Plains Native Americans, and she found vocabulary words such as expedition, ceremony, raid, maize, and shaman. Instead of having her memorize a definition shell have trouble remembering, instruct her to use the vocabulary words appropriately in a prompt like one of these: Using at least five of the vocabulary words from the chapter, compose a letter to the shaman from a warrior who is away on a raid.Youre visiting a Plains Native American tribe. Write a 1-2 paragraph description of the things you see, smell and hear using at least five of the vocabulary words from the chapter.You are a Plains Native American child. Using at least five of the vocabulary words from the chapter, convince an outsider that your tribe is the best place to grow up. By giving her a situation that may not have been described in the book, like a childs perspective, youre allowing your child to mesh knowledge she already has in her head with knowledge from the chapter shes just learned. This fusion creates a map for her to get to the new information on test day just by remembering her story. Brilliant! All is not lost when your child comes home sobbing because she mislaid her review guide for the umpteenth time. Sure, she needs to get an organizational system in place to help her keep track of her stuff, but in the meantime, you have a system in place to help her keep track of her test grades. Using the SQ3R Strategy to learn the test content and tools like Venn diagrams and vocabulary stories to reinforce it ensures that your child will ace her chapter test and totally redeem herself on exam day.

Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Annotated Bibliography Example Teams become effective and productive, whenever working on a similar task, since such groups can leverage off one another’s strong point and compensate weaknesses of other colleagues. Project team leadership explains individual roles. Leadership gets dispersed among the members of the team. Team leader leads members to lead themselves. Leaders can generate thought patterns, which are motivating and positive. Project team leadership embraces personal goal setting through self evaluation and observation. Goals can be attained through enhancing illuminating roles among team members. The book, Field Guide to Project Management has the importance of measuring and monitoring individual and team performance (Cleland, 2004, p. 398). Project team leadership should develop motivation using extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Developing skills among team members requires team training and coaching. Global project management entails a framework which tackles the combined challenges in the virtual and distributed projects internationally. Global project management includes leading by exception. The book, Field Guide to Project Management, find many leaders or managers in different time zones, and locations to have detrimental meetings to initiate activities. It is recommendable to plan a vast project management tool for tracking that gives accurate information, right metrics, and maintains the status of the work efforts of everyone appraised. Create team synergies through strategic gatherings (Cleland, 2004, p. 12). A social on line application can be made to allow the team members recognize one another. Respect the numerous cultures, activities and holidays the team members take part in without allowing work boundaries sorting the home. Virtual project team gives a virtual growth of assets. Virtual project team requires core elements. Leadership provided should be robust and

Effectiveness of Public Service Announcements Research Proposal

Effectiveness of Public Service Announcements - Research Proposal Example (Erica Weintraub Austina*, 2008) Kiakati believe that use of celebrities can have many benefits and advantages such as - (Anita Elberse, July 2011) Facilitating the identification of brand by consumers Changing the negativity associated with a brand Repositioning a brand Affecting the purchase intentions of the consumers. Celebrities are fickle in nature and although promotions through them may increase brand visibility it may also make your brand related to some negative characteristics. (Veer, Becirovic, & A.S.Martin, 2010) Public Service Announcements are designed to inform the audience about certain aspects or to induce certain behavior in them by the use of mass-media approaches. The important point in most of the public service announcements is that they are not trying to sell a product. They are trying to sell an idea or a belief system. A PSA which encourages people to use public transport system is trying to modify their behavior over a long period of time. Making a person b uy soap is entirely different from making him do a particular thing again and again. (Dan Werb1, 2011) We will try to analyze through this research how effective the use of popular celebrities or respected spokesperson is in creating the final attitude change in the target audience of the PSA. all celebrities responsible for just bringing in the crowd or can they help PSA in the same way they help the FMCGs. Consumers tend to copy their icons and use the products preferred by them ; will they also follow their lead in changing their attitudes towards a particular thing or is it too personal to be affected by a celebrity. We will analyze this particular aspect of PSAs in the research paper – How effective is the use of celebrities for bringing about the attitude change desired by PSAs. Literature review Some properties such as likeability of the celebrity , expertise , trustworthiness and similarity causes a celebrity endorser to become a cause of persuasive information to the audience and also ends up creating a sense of certainty and encourages the user to try the product or the service. Acceptance of a message by a receiver can be influenced by celebrity endorsers as people consider them to be believable sources of information about a product. The balance theory principles emphasize the creation of an emotional connect between the observer and the endorser. This emotional relationship also creates and emotional connect between the audience and the cause. Is this fact also true for a cause espoused by the PSAs? Will a celebrity help in creating an emotional connect of the user with the cause. McGuire (1998) has created a very effective input output matrix for creating effective public service announcements. Along the input axis are important aspect of the message such as source, message factors, channel factors, receiver factors and finally target behaviors at which the communication is aimed at. McGuire says that for the PSA to be effective; the targe t audience must have contact with it, must pay attention to it, like it, understand and learn from the content, agree with it, store the information presented by it and make decisions based on it. (Kang, Cappella, & Fishbein, sep 2009)

Teen Pregnancy Essay Example for Free

Teen Pregnancy Essay Today in this society so many teenagers are having sex and not realizing the outcome of what is going too happened after they have done it? Not all parents are in their kids business enough when they should be. Wondering where your kids are at all times when they are in their early teenage years are one of the good ways you can keep track of what they do on daily basics. Most of the time kids don’t do the right thing and they are most likely to not return from school on time either and that’s why parents need to understand their kids and for the kids to try to understand the parents and know that their parents are not putting them down they just care. see more:short informative speech examples Teenage pregnancy is increasing rapidly in our country. In fact, Manila has the highest teen birth rate in the Philippines. There are factors that contribute to this increasing problem. Teen pregnancy comes with effects that can cause serious problems. Teenage pregnancy is a growing problem that can be prevented by using contraceptives. Teenage pregnancy is a growing problem. It can cause many emotional effects. Being pregnant can cause a teenage mother to wonder how and why she got pregnant in the first place. A teenage mom is also affected emotionally by realizing that she has to carry the child for nine months, and the father does not. He gets to go out and do whatever he wants to do. Finances are more problems for the teenage parents to have to face. They have to have a job to support the child. Most teen families end up on welfare. According to Kristie A. Klusaw, states that â€Å"Pre Marital Sex is a huge problem in the society today.† Klusaw also states that â€Å"teenagers are not waiting to get married to have sex.† And by doing that, this is clearly a cause of teen pregnancy. Meenakshi Madhur also added that â€Å"Sex is a very strong biological need. However sex after marriage has a purpose of not only evolution but also amedium of expressing love between couples.† Inside the â€Å"The Unplanned Pregnancy Book† written by Dorrie Williams-Wheeler it says in there that â€Å"There are reasons of teen pregnancy, the first one is Psychological Factors, the immature and irresponsible behavior arising due to complex teenage psychology is another important cause of teenage pregnancies. â€Å"Teenagers often go through a number of emotions because of their own transition from childhood and peer pressure.† Williams-Wheeler added. In addition to that, Williams-Wheeler also said that that thee second cause of teen pregnancy is â€Å"Lack of Discipline and Control, factors like alcohol and substance abuse accompanied by unrestricted interaction with the opposite sex can ignite the sparks of lust and passion in youngsters very easily ultimately leading to teenage pregnancy.†

Gay and Lesbian Partners Deserve Health Benefits Essay -- Argumentativ

In the United States today, one to twelve percent of the population is homosexual (Gilbert, 17). In recent years, gay men, lesbians and bisexuals have been fighting long and hard to get the same rights and benefits as their heterosexual counterparts. Now, employers and health care providers are being forced to listen to their cries for equality. Should employers offer health benefits for domestic partners of gay employees? This question is forcing society to think about, and possibly change, what their definition of couple/family truly means. As would be expected, most employers offer health benefits to their heterosexual employees and their families. Some companies cover the total cost of this benefit, others cover the bulk of the cost while the employee contributes a small amount each week out of their salary. In some instances, this can account for 25% of the employee's total wages (Partners-Domestic). Employers are using the excuse of high expenses as their main reason behind not offering these same benefits to their homosexual employees. They think it will cost them more in health care contributions for homosexual employees than it does for heterosexual ones. Their main concern? AIDS. In reality, many current domestic partner plans relate that: "Less than one percent of the workforce participates, AIDS health care benefit costs come to only about one-tenth those of a premature baby, gay men do not always get AIDS, and AIDS is not exclusive to gay men" (Partners-Domestic). A major obstacle for gay employees is that their employers have to confront their employee's homosexuality; something many employers are afraid of, or refuse to do. Using the law as their scapegoat by say... ...p.html. December 1995. Partners Task Force for Gay and Lesbian Couples. "Factoids on Domestic Partnership Benefits" 1995. Internet URL: http://www.eskimo.com/~demian/d-p-fac.html. Dec 1995. Partners Task Force for Gay and Lesbian Couples. "Partners National Survey of Lesbian and Gay Couples" 1995. Unternet URL: http://www.eskimo.com/~demian/survey.html. Dec 1995. "Companies, Municipalities and Universities with Domestic Partnership Plans". Internet URL: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/dtw/www/companies.html. "In the Superior Court For the State of Alaska Fourth Judicial District". Internet URL: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/scotts/domestic-partners/Tumeo_v_U_Alaska.txt "University of Iowa Domestic Partner Coverage". Internet URL: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/scotts/domestic-partners/U-Iowa-costs.html.

Case Study Cicso Essay

How does building a brand in a business-to-business context different from doing so in the consumer market? When companies market (company A) their products to other business (Company B), they are looking to build a lasting business relationship. Company B is marketing their product and services because they know and understand what the company will need in order to operate more efficiently. When companies make purchases, it is a multi-step process that involves executive decisions and planning, company financial review (depending on the amount of the purchase), and possible sales meetings to offer demonstrations of new products (Business Marketing Association, n.d.). B2B marketing is to convert prospects into customers and build a lasting business relationship; they need to focus on relationship building and communication using marketing activities that generate leads that can be nurtured during the sales cycle (Murphy, 2007). Marketing to a company can be done through email, webcasting, newsletters, telemarketing, direct mail, and representative follow up services. Companies keep in constant contact with the business in an attempt to keep doing business with them and ensuring that any needs the company may have, they will attempt to meet or exceed. When companies decide to market to consumers, they use a different approach. The majority of the products on the market for consumers are not a necessity; companies have to use creative ways to ensure that consumers will purchase the product. The ultimate goal of B2C marketing is to convert shoppers into buyers as aggressively and consistently as possible (Murphy, 2007). Unlike how companies make decisions, consumers go off their emotions, product eye appeal, prices, discounts, and coupon usage. When consumers decided to make purchases, the buying process starts long before the actual purchase and has consequences long afterwards (Kotler & Keller, 2012). Since consumers make purchase for  different reasons than companies, consumers face a higher risk because of factors that may not be in their control. Technology has made marketing easier and even free for some companies. When companies target consumers, they use social media, blogs, electronic coupons, and customer survey completions that offer winnings. Consumers review the advertisements and see them as a good deal, even if it’s for a product they don’t need. To make the deal even better companies also offer loyalty rewards for frequent shoppers and buyers. Companies combine merchandise and education to consumers to keep the coming back (Murphy, 2007). This marketing technique lets the company know that the customer will return to make purchases and even purchase new products when they come on the market. Business Marketing Association, n.d. Key differences between B2B and consumer marketing. Retrieved from http://www.marketing.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageID=3418 Kotler. P., Keller, K. L., 2012. Marketing Management (14th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice Hall Murphy, D. 2007, Marketing for B2B vs. B2C similar but different. Retrieved from http://masterful-marketing.com/marketing-b2b-v s-b2c/ Is Cisco’s plan to reach out to consumers a viable one? Why or why not? Cisco’s plan to reach consumers looks like a very viable plan. The company was able to launch a campaign that introduced them to consumers as being able to service not only large companies, but also to everyday consumers. Most consumers may have never thought about wireless capabilities being used within their homes; however Cisco was looking to change that by offering wireless network options to consumers. The â€Å"Human Network† campaign tried to humanize the technology giant and the initial results were positive (Kotler & Keller, 2012). Cisco Connected Sports allowed the company to showcase their product in a large venue. The fans who attended the games were able to see the new technology being used and how the stadium made the devices seem easy to use and navigate. Serious sports fans would be pleased, but the company still needs to think about consumers that do not attend games. The downside of Cisco entering the consumer market is that they had a lot of competition when attempting to market to consumers. While the company does have a viable plan to obtain the customers attention, the downside is that they have to compete with well-known electronic companies. For instance, vendors such as Samsung Electronics, which have long experience and established brands in that business, can fairly easily add networking to their products; its less likely that companies out of the network and into the living room Lawson, 2013). According to Kotler & Keller, (2012), Cisco’s revenues increased 41 percent from 2006 to 2008, led by sales increases in both home and business use; by the end of 2008, Cisco’s revenue topped 39.5 billion and Business Week ranked it the 18th biggest global brand (p. 57). Even with the increased revenue, Cisco sold its home networking business to Belkin International; the company plans to fold Linksys’ employee and products into its operations while keeping the Linksys brand alive (Lawson, 2013). Since the sale of Linksys to Belkin, Cisco has once again attempted to enter the consumer market by offering services through a service provider. The essence of Cisco’s business with services providers, where it makes both set-top boxes for homes and back-end infrastructure for content delivery (Lawson, 2013). Cisco could possibly make a comeback into the consumer market and if Cisco wants to be part of that, they will need to market and introduce products that consumers really need and want. Lawson, S., 2013. After selling Linksys, Cisco aims to reach consumers through carriers. Retrieved from http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9236213/After_selling_Linksys_Cisco_aims_to_reach_consumers_through_carriers Kotler. P., Keller, K. L., 2012. Marketing Management (14th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice Hall

CU3820 Principles of Assessment in Lifelong learning Essay

1.1: Explain the types of assessment used in lifelong learning. To ‘Measure (assess) the breadth and depth of learning’ (Geoff Petty 1998) I, as a teacher must ensure that my students will understand the targets and goals set for them. This is achieved by using assessment practises. ‘Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning’ breaks down the structure of assessing and learning thus: †¢ Creating †¢ Evaluating †¢ Analysing †¢ Applying †¢ Understanding †¢ Remembering These methods also enable me, as a teacher to measure success within the classroom. To evaluate whether learning is taking place, there are three assessment methods to use. Initial Assessment: To assess the learning capabilities of the learner an initial assessment will take place. This will enable me to determine whether there are any learning difficulties that may affect the learning and teaching process. Once any difficulties are found the relevant support can be given to the learner. Formative Assessment: This method is used to monitor the learning progress of the learners during the course. It will enable me to provide feedback on their progress and also give the learner the opportunity to give me feedback on my performance. This method can also highlight ant problems that may need o be addressed. Summative Assessment; Summative assessments takes place at the end of each course or learning session. It will assess to what extent learning has been achieved and to enable me to re-evaluate my own teaching methods. This will allow verifiers to assign course grades and certification. 1.2 EXPLAIN THE USE OF METHODS OF ASSESSMENT IN LIFELONG LEARNING To explain how assessments show progress and achievement, it is essential to learn what an assessment is. Assessment for learning is a term used to describe how evidence of student learning is recorded by me the teacher and is used by both students and teachers to decide where a student is within their learning and what they need to do better or to keep to the level that they are working at. Assessment for learning is a very effective way to put on record that learning and good teaching are being achieved. Assessment for learning is a joint process between student and teacher where both are engaged in an on-going process of student progress and development. The assessment to use will depend on the subject in my case spanish and any requirements of the organisations involved. Although all teachers should use some initial assessment to identify needs of the learner and to see if they have any previous experience in the language work set to them which in my subject would be spanish. Assessment methods can be recorded for group or individualls to reflect on the ability of the students. The student or learning group and the activities you select and the learning outcomes might affect your choice of assessment methods in a lesson. Formative assessment takes place during learning with the purpose of improving learning and involves me as the teacher giving feed back into the learning process to help me as the teacher, to decide whether a student is ready to move on or needs to practice what is being learnt, or has still yet to learn. It is usually the teacher’s final decision as to whether a student is ready to move on to the next stage of the course. Formative assessment can take a variety of forms; peer and self assessment, verbal and written, questioning and marking. Summative assessment happens at the end of a course. To measure and talk to the student/groups about what they have learned so far in the lessons. Summative learning is less about informing and improving the learning process but more about measuring the end result; for example end of year exam. 1.3 Compare the strengths and limitations of assessment methods to meet individual learner needs Student questioning is an effective way for engaging students within the learning process, obtaining existing knowledge of the chosen course and demonstrating, thinking and understanding of the students enables me to informally yet formatively assess their knowledge and the understanding of the progress the student is making with their studying. For example; at the beginning of my micro teach session, which was a De-fragmentation learning exercise, I asked the group if any of them had any previous experiences. This aided me in what level to teach the group. A good ice-breaker can be used as a group activity, as in my micro teach i got the group to exchange questions and answers with the person next to them to get the group engaged. I then dealt with each learner individually by asking them how they were getting on and if they understood the subject. This simple but effective method engaged the group, then I could address the learners individually and provide individual needs for the said learner. David Miliband stated: ‘We need to do more than engage and empower pupils and parents in the selection of a school: their engagement has to be effective in the day-to-day processes of education, at the heart of the way schools create partnerships with professional teachers and support staff to deliver tailor-made services, In other words we need to embrace individual empowerment within as well as between schools.’ References: Milliband,D (2004)’Personalised learning meeting individual learner needs’ Published by The Learning and kills Network 2. Understand ways to involve learners in the assessment process. 2.1. Explain ways to involve the learner in the assessment process. Carol Boston says ‘Black and William (1998b) define assessment broadly to include all activities that teachers and students undertake to get information that can be used diagnostically to alter teaching and learning. Under this definition, assessment encompasses teacher observation, classroom discussion, and analysis of student work, including homework and tests. Assessments become formative when the information is used to adapt teaching and learning to meet student need.† Where and how do we include students in the formative assessment process? What is the role of technology in this feedback cycle?’ Formative assessment, as I understand it, is an on-going process where both teachers and students evaluate assessment evidence in order to make adjustments to their teaching and learning. Robert Marzano has called it â€Å"one of the more powerful weapons in a teacher’s arsenal.† The formative assessment process can strengthen students’ abilities to assess their own progress, to set and evaluate their own learning goals, and to make adjustments accordingly. Formative assessment can also elicit valuable feedback from students about what teachers are doing effectively and what they could do better. Student Self-Assessment and Reflection Activities which promote meta-cognitive thinking and ask students to reflect on their learning processes are key to the formative assessment process. When students are asked to think about what they have learned and how they have learned it (the learning strategies they’ve used), they are better able to understand their own learning processes and can set new goals for themselves. Students can reflect on their learning in many ways: answering a set of questions, drawing a picture or set of pictures to represent their learning process, talking with a partner, keeping a learning log or journal, etc. Goal Sheets Having students set their own goals and evaluate their progress toward achieving them is an effective part of the formative assessment process. Goal setting has a positive effect on student motivation and learning when the goals are specific and performance based, relatively short-term, and moderately difficult. Goal sheets are an effective way to help students set goals and track their progress. It is best to identify specific goals. For example, â€Å"I will read in English for 20 minutes each night† is more specific than â€Å"I will read more.† Also, goals need to be achievable in a short period of time and not impossibly difficult. The teacher can model how to set effective goals and also how to evaluate one’s progress toward achieving them by asking students to periodically write or talk about what they have achieved, what they still would like to achieve, and how they will do it. 2.2. Explain the role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment programme F. Dochy (2006) said ‘The growing demand for lifelong learners and reflective practitioners has stimulated a re-evaluation of the relationship between learning and its assessment, and has influenced to a large extent the development of new assessment forms such as self-, peer, and co-assessment. Three questions are discussed: (1) what are the main findings from research on new assessment forms such as self-, peer and co-assessment; (2) in what way can the results be brought together; and (3) what guidelines for educational practitioners can be derived from this body of knowledge? A review of literature, based on the analysis of 63 studies, suggests that the use of a combination of different new assessment forms encourages students to become more responsible and reflective. The article concludes with some guidelines for practitioners.’ Principles for using self and peer assessment 1. The purpose for using self and peer assessment should be explicit for staff and students A major reason for using self and peer assessment is for its role in developing students’ skills in improving learning and in helping students to improve their performance on assessed work. Additionally, it has a place as a means of summative assessment. 2. There is no reason why peer and self assessment should not contribute to summative assessment In many such cases such assessment will not contribute a major proportion of the mark until it has been well tried and tested. However, in a well-regulated scheme, there is no reason to limit the proportion of the marks involved. It is particularly important that the principles below are noted. 3. Moderation For any situation in which the mark from peer or self assessment contributes towards the final mark of the module, the member of staff should maintain the right to moderate student-allocated marks. The initial step in alteration of a student-allocated mark may be negotiation with the student(s) concerned. 4. Instances of unfair or inappropriate marking need to be dealt with sensitively Any instances of collusive (‘friendship’) marking need to be dealt with sensitively and firmly. 5. The quality of feedback on student work must be maintained In situations of self and peer assessment, students are usually in a position to learn more than from situations of tutor-marked work. They learn from their engagement in assessing and frequently from oral, in addition to written feedback. However, the tutor should monitor the feedback and, where appropriate, elaborate it to ensure that students receive fair and equal treatment. 6. Assessment procedures should always involve use of well-defined, publicly-available assessment criteria While this is true of all assessment, it is particularly true where relatively inexperienced assessors (students) are involved. The assessment criteria may be developed by the tutor, but greater value is gained from the procedure if students are involved in developing the criteria themselves. 7. Involvement of students in assessment needs careful planning Many students see assessment as a job for staff, but at a later stage they are likely to recognise the benefits to their academic learning and skill development. Initial efforts will take time and tutor support. For these reasons, it is preferable that the use of peer and self assessment is seen as a strategy to improve learning and assessment across a whole programme. The common situation is for these assessment procedures to appear in isolated modules, often not at level 1. 8. Self and peer assessment procedures should be subject to particularly careful monitoring and evaluation from the tutor and students’ point of view It can take time for such procedures to run smoothly and for this reason, the initial involvement of relatively few marks – or solely formative assessment is wise. Student feedback to the tutor on the procedure will be important. 9. The use of peer and self assessment should be recognised as skill development in itself Such procedures are not just another means of assessment but represent the development of self-appraisal/evaluative, analytical, critical and reflective skills. These are important as employability skills and can be recognised in the learning outcomes of a module. References: Dochy,F (2006) Studies in Higher Education. Published by Web of Science(2006) 3.1. Explain the need to keep records of assessment of learning. Record keeping is part of the role and responsibility of the tutor and some often these records are required by law or codes of practice in the institution or industry. But there are boundaries and legislation regarding what can be collected and kept and how it can be used. The Data Protection Act 1998 states that records must be kept securely, be relevant and not excessive, accurate and up to date and not kept for longer than necessary. Students can request a copy of all information held about them under The Freedom of Information Act 2000. All important things to bear in mind. The need for keeping records I like that you are forced to think about why there are these records, not just what they are or how they work. Why are these records being kept, to what end? †¢ Track progress †¢ Prove achievement †¢ Identify issues such as low attendance / learning difficulties †¢ Ensure all sections of course have been completed It could be that a lot of these are required by your institution. But I’m not sure that’s the best answer: â€Å"because I have to†. Take it one step further back and think about why the organisation requires you to keep or submit them. Once you’ve thought about what records you need then it is on to how you collect and categorise that information. The types of records you would maintain A lot of this focuses more on the pastoral side, which I think is nice. Make sure you show a variety of types of records, to show you have thought about the full spectrum: †¢ Attendance and assessment †¢ Everything in between †¢ Tutorials, one to ones, learning reviews / goals / plans 3.2. Summarize requirements for keeping records of assessment in an organisation. Recording and Keeping Assessment Results Most organisations have a process in place for recording the results of assessments, and so does your Registered Training Organisation. It is not uncommon as well for assessors to maintain their own records in case of any follow up or appeals. A generic approach would be: †¢ Assessor either records or passes on the results for recording †¢ Assessor checks that the result has been accurately recorded †¢ Result provided to learner There are several reasons why the results need to be kept: †¢ Feedback to learner †¢ Legislative requirements †¢ Record in case of appeal †¢ Company records for future training needs Recognition of Prior Learning Another reason to maintain a record is for the recognition of prior learning and credit transfer processes. If outcomes can be matched by different training organisations detailed records of exactly how competency is assessed simplify the process. It also means, the competency a learner has acquired in one environment may be considered in another, different environment. With records a learner can apply to have prior learning recognised often before commencing a new training program. While it is necessary to keep a record of the actual result, it can be useful to also keep details on how the assessment was made. Training Records and Confidentiality Generally speaking, the only way an external person is able to access another person’s record is with the written permission of the person involved. |Access to records must be restricted for the sake of confidentiality. | | |Generally, managers and supervisors have limited access to personal files, but consider: | | |Who should have access to assessment records? | | |Why would they need the information? | | |What level of detail do they require? | | Each organisation will have a policy and procedures for access that should comply with ethical and legal obligations. It would be worthwhile checking your store policy and procedures in relation to this area.

My Antonia by Willa Cather

My Antonia by Willa Cather Free Online Research Papers From two different places, from two different worlds, it is amazing how two people with separate pasts can come together and form an enigmatic bond. Willa Cather captured this in My Antonia between its two main characters, Jim and Antonia. Throughout the story, Antonia was a representation of a life very different from Jim’s and as a strong bond with the land shows us Jim’s fascination with Antonia. She is his counterpart. Antonia represents an alternative to Jim’s life as a middle-class American boy. Unlike Jim, she’s able to move away from all the stereotypes and boundaries of her class and gender. â€Å"Antonia is a lot less inhibited than Jim is and listens to her heart more.†(Woodress) In the end, Jim’s decisions are made according to social thumbs up or thumbs downs. He goes through a rebel stage and ignores all of his responsibilities to his own class to hang out with people his family and friends don’t think highly of, but when he figures out that what he’s doing is hurting his grandparents and where they stand socially like honor wise, he stops really fast. He goes back to the whole country women feel of life when he ignores his studies and starts to hang out with Lena in Lincoln. But right after Gaston Cleric, his mentor, gives him a little bit of advice, he forgets about Lena and focuses back onto his studies. After doing things like this over and over, he ends up really far away from Nebraska to the point where he can’t ever be as close again. Back to present tense, the grownup Jim regrets not being able to stop and enjoy all the country girls, the â€Å"Real Women† like Lena and Antonia, and at the same time, be admired for his successful professional life. He wishes he could’ve had both. In the end, he plans out lots of visits from New York to Antonia and her family back in the country. The second thing Antonia represents to Jim is a close tie to the land. As much as he loves the land, Jim is able to give it up for the city whereas Antonia is the happiest there. The differences between Antonia and Jim almost spell out what the Nebraska prairie means to two really specific different types of people. â€Å"Jim has a lot of harmony with the land and loves it a lot, but he never has to work it like Antonia did.† (Bohlke) She has to go through the pains of it more than him, like how when they are both cold and sick during the winter at different times, Jim is protected by his grandmother’s house and Antonia has to wait it out in the cold. He only lives there three years before moving to Black Hawk and he never moves back. Generally, whenever Jim sees the land, he thinks of what we can use it for, as in railroads and buildings. He’s all about progress, and he doesn’t mind when the grasslands are wiped out for railroads. He looks at the land a s an instrument for progress. Antonia on the other hand thinks of the land as a divine entity driven by its own force. At the end Cather portrays Antonia in her orchard touching all of her trees that she planted and took care of like people. Antonia is much more a relative like a sister to the land and Jim is more of a master. When Jim tells Antonia how important she is to him, he is telling her that she is his counterpart. He says, â€Å"The idea of you is a part of my mind; you influence my likes and dislikes, all my tastes, hundreds of times when I don’t realize it. You really are a part of me.† (Cather) Jim and Antonia are never exactly the same; they were always notably different socially and attitude wise. Her difference helped him to define himself and make his own choices. Jim says that he might have liked to have Antonia as something closer like a sweetheart, or a wife, or my mother or my sister (Cather), but he never went after her like that. Willa Cather’s opinion of them comes across as Antonia and Jim being better counterparts than intimates. The last thing he does in reference to this all is him writing â€Å"My† in front of her name. She is his because he took in his image of her so much that its part of him now. That’s why he says The idea of you is a part of my mind. He is saying that it’s the â€Å"Idea† of Antonia that’s a part of him, like his own imagination of her in his head. Antonia is a big part of Jim. The connection in My Antonia is the contradictions between Jim and Antonia that form a bond, ultimately uniting them. Willa Cather is very accepting of Jim and Antonia’s fate. They both represent their respective people, class and native wise. I think she’s trying to get the point across that when you don’t have much in life, money and status wise, you take what life gives you and you make that everything. Research Papers on My Antonia by Willa CatherThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsWhere Wild and West MeetThe Hockey GameCapital Punishment19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraHip-Hop is ArtThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThe Spring and AutumnComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Three Basic Principles of Utilitarianism

Three Basic Principles of Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is one of the most important and influential moral theories of modern times. In many respects, it is the outlook of Scottish philosopher  David Hume (1711-1776) and his writings from the mid-18th century. But it received both its name and its clearest statement in the writings of English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Even today Mills essay Utilitarianism, which was published in 1861, remains one of the most widely taught expositions of the doctrine. There are three principles that serve as the basic axioms of utilitarianism. 1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value. Utilitarianism gets its name from the term utility, which in this context does not mean useful but, rather, means pleasure or happiness.  To say that something has intrinsic value means that it is simply good in itself.  A world in which this thing exists, or is possessed, or is experienced, is better than a world without it (all other things being equal). Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental value.  Something has instrumental value when it is a means to some end.  For example, a screwdriver has instrumental value to the carpenter; it is not valued for its own sake but for what can be done with it. Now Mill admits that we seem to value some things other than pleasure and happiness for their own sake- we value health, beauty, and knowledge in this way. But he argues that we  never  value anything unless we associate it in some way with pleasure or happiness. Thus, we value beauty because it is pleasurable to behold. We value knowledge because,  usually, it is useful to us in coping with the world, and hence is linked to happiness. We value love and friendship because they are sources of pleasure and happiness. Pleasure and happiness, though, are unique in being valued purely for their own sake. No other reason for valuing them needs to be given. It is better to be happy than sad. This cant really be proved. But everyone thinks this. Mill thinks of happiness as consisting of many and varied pleasures. Thats why he runs the two concepts together. Most utilitarians, though, talk mainly of happiness, and that is what we will do from this point on. 2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness. This principle is controversial. It makes utilitarianism a form of consequentialism since it says that the morality of an action is decided by its consequences. The more happiness is produced among those affected by the action, the better the action is. So, all things being equal, giving presents to a whole gang of children is better than giving a present to just one. Similarly, saving two lives is better than saving one life. That can seem quite sensible. But the principle is controversial because many people would say that what decides the morality of an action is the  motive  behind it. They would say, for instance, that if you give $1,000 to charity because you want to look good to voters in an election, your action is not so deserving of praise as if you gave $50 to charity motivated by compassion, or a sense of duty. 3. Everyones Happiness Counts Equally. This may strike you as a rather obvious moral principle. But when it was put forward by Bentham (in the form, everyone to count for one; no-one for more than one) it was quite radical. Two hundred years ago, it was a commonly held view that some lives, and the happiness they contained, were simply more important and valuable than others.  For example, the lives of masters were more important than slaves; the well-being of a king was more important than that of a peasant. So in Benthams time, this principle of equality was decidedly progressive.  It lay behind calls on the government to pass policies that would benefit all equally, not just the ruling elite. It is also the reason why utilitarianism is very far removed from any kind of egoism. The doctrine does not say that you should strive to maximize your own happiness. Rather, your happiness is just that of one person and carries no special weight. Utilitarians like the Australian philosopher Peter Singer take this idea of treating everyone equally very seriously. Singer argues that we have the same obligation to help needy strangers in far-off places as we have to help those closest to us. Critics think that this makes utilitarianism unrealistic and too demanding. But in Utilitarianism,  Mill attempts to answer this criticism by arguing that the general happiness is best served by each person focusing primarily on themselves and those around them. Benthams commitment to equality was radical in another way, too. Most moral philosophers before him had held that human beings have no particular obligations to animals since animals cant reason or talk, and they lack free will. But in Benthams view, this is irrelevant. What matters is whether an animal is capable of feeling pleasure or pain. He doesnt say that we should treat animals as if they were human. But he does think that the world is a better place if there is more pleasure and less suffering among the animals as well as among us. So we should at least avoid causing animals unnecessary suffering.

Business Innovation - Six Sigma program and Motorola Term Paper

Business Innovation - Six Sigma program and Motorola - Term Paper Example This process saves a great deal of time that is used to improve on design and general quality aspects of products. Introduction Motorola’s history is quite helpful for many businesses especially in the manufacturing sector. Its major contribution to this sector is the Six Sigma initiative in production where focus was shifted from measuring quality in percentages to parts per million. This idea stemmed from the realisation that the advancement in technology cannot stick with the conservative forms of measurement. Six Sigma was introduced to achieve the set quality goals so as to minimise chances of wastage in terms of resources and time. The company since the adoption of this strategy has saved its shareholders billions of dollars in terms of resources and time. The initiative has also enabled it to deliver high quality products to its consumers all over the world. Cell phone sales have shot up tremendously in the last decade and Motorola was well positioned in the 1990s to ca ter for the rising demand. For the initiative to work the company has to ensure that it changes its leadership and invest in rewarding innovation coupled with creating the right metrics. This paper will aim at discussing the circumstances that led to the innovation of Six Sigma in Motorola, how Six Sigma project was implemented at Motorola and the results achieved by the company after implementation. Company overview Motorola is one of the leading companies in the electronic communications business. It deals in designing and manufacturing cellular and cordless phones, broadband products and modems among other products. It ranks as the second largest producer of mobile phones behind Nokia. It has for a long time controlled about 17% of the entire world market in regards to mobile phones but leading in two-way radios (Pande, Neuman & Cavanagh, 2000). It has concentrated a great deal in wireless communication and internet related technology. The company further produces a wide range of products for use in the automotive industry together with computer and navigation. It is also important to appreciate that the company enjoys a bigger market outside the USA at almost 60%. Motorola’s glory can be attributed heavily on its quality products which in 1988 saw it receive Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. This award recognises businesses that act as role models for others in various areas of management and general operations. It is the Six Sigma initiative at Motorola that attracted this admiration. Motorola acted as the first company to incorporate this Six Sigma in its operations back in January 1987 and due to its almost-immediate success, many other companies followed suit. Before this initiative Motorola was experiencing one of the most turbulent times since it was Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928 (Coronado & Jiju 2002). However, since February 2011 Motorola became two separate companies; Motorola Mobile and Motorola Mobility. Motorola and Six Sigma Before Motorola came up with the Six Sigma initiative, it was on its downward trend and it required an intensively innovative approach to the market. The competitive market arena had become too competitive for the company to rely on its traditional management practices and operational methods. The changes towards a fully-fledged Six Sigma project

Manging People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Manging People - Essay Example It depends upon the manager/ leader how he manages people. Most of the businesses now structure their employees in group and every group has a manager and in more general terms leader. Every group is given a project or a task which is to be accomplished. It is the responsibility of the manager that the project is completed before the deadline and the group is functioning smoothly. Thus the companies' owner or the people who appoint manager should keep several things in mind like the organizational skills of a person, his temperament and his communication skills. To evaluate the best choice amongst candidates the interviewers should conduct a detailed interview. Observation skills can be very helpful in determining the right choice thus the owner should appoint a manager on temporary bases and after the manger proves himself he should be made permanent. Another way of determining if the person appointed is capable is by having discussions with team members under that manager. The owner should ask team members if they are facing any kind of difficulties because of the manger. Thus after thorough evaluation it becomes quite obvious if the person chosen for the job is capable or not. Choosing the right person is so essential that if this decision is made wrong the overall performance of the company can get affected. Characteristics of an Ideal Manager Every characteristic which proves to create solidarity and harmony amongst the team members is an important characteristic. The manager should even have qualities which would enhance motivation and honesty of the team members towards the job and the team members. If a manager is very criticizing or points out tiny mistakes of his team members the effect of it would be that the employee would develop hatred for his manager. Thus instead of discussing projects with manger the team member would start hiding work. Another thing is that if a manger responds brusquely to questions and interruptions the team members would eventually leave you alone. They will not raise problems, they will not question your instructions, and they will struggle on bravely. Your behavior may result in a swamp of errors, unguided activity and absolute dissatisfaction. Then there is motivation a manager should be highly motivating he should have the quality to praise good work and should be habitual of highlighting god work of employees. A manger should always be their to support, encourage and help his team members. These qualities always give a team member an effect that the manager is his friend more then his boss thus loyalty towards work increases. Then there is setting targets a manger should have the capability of setting standards that is dividing a major task into sub tasks. The criterion on which a manger assigns these tasks is very important a manager should be aware of every team member's abilities hence if a manger assigns jobs according to personal capabilities the result would be very effective, quality of the job would be remarkable and all team members would feel satisfied with their jobs. Then there is advancements if a team members is working very hard and still getting no promotion he might get clumsy and the spirit of working would die therefore a

Is it over-ambitious to expect spatial planning to deliver better Essay

Is it over-ambitious to expect spatial planning to deliver better health - Essay Example started developing sewer systems in all cities in order to address the outbreak of epidemics such as cholera, influenza and tuberculosis (Jackson 2011, p 23). In the last two decades, there has been considerable interest in the relationship between the fields of urban planning and public health in order to address the major health concerns (Greed, 1999, p 9). Currently, the role of government in urban environment and city planning has been critical in enhancing the health of population since city planners issue built environment regulations and zoning laws that determine the design of the infrastructure, sewer systems, roads, public spaces and social amenities in the neighborhoods (Boone and Modarres 2009, p 30). Spatial planning leads to better health and sustainable communities. Planning concepts such as Spatial Urban Health Equity Indicators (SUHEI) allows the urban planning authorities to determine the relationship between exposure to health hazards and health effects. The initial goal of planning was to offer healthy living conditions for the growing urban populations, but recent planning efforts focus on the importance of space and place in the communities (Cullingworth and Nadin, 2006, p 9). According to environmental research, the surrounding social, biological, chemical and physical factors determine the quality of health of an individual since factors such as unemployment, unsafe neighborhoods, noise and radiation negatively affect the health and wellbeing of an individual. The Driving force-Pressure-State-Exposure-Effect-Action (DPSEEA) model outlines that driving forces push the environmental factors that that ultimately pressure the environment through human exploitation thus exposing human beings to conditions that turn out to be environmental h azards (Jackson, 2011, p 13). The Multiple Exposures-Multiple Effects (MEME) model outlines that contextual factors such as economic development, demographics and social conditions influence the exposure to

Innovation And Managing Innovation

Innovation And Managing Innovation There are different types of innovation. Joseph Tidd and John Bessant describe in their books four broad categories of innovation. (Tidd Bessant, 2009) Following these categories are referred as the 4Ps of innovation: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ product innovation changes in the things (products/services) which an organization offers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ process innovation changes in the ways in which they are created and delivered à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ position innovation changes in the context in which the products/services are introduced à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ paradigm innovation changes in the underlying mental models which frame what the organization does For example, the new version of a car, a new bank account offer and a new home personnel computer are all examples of a product innovation. In comparison to a product innovation a change in the production process and machines used to manufacture the car or the home computer these examples are process innovations. Similar the example of the new bank account offer if this came up by changing procedures and sequencing in the bank office. Characteristic for services is the merge of a process and product innovation. For example a new weekend trip package could be combination of both types of innovations. The third type is the position innovation. In this context an innovation changes the perception of the customer through repositioning of the established product or process. For example, to use shower gel also to wash and clean clothes is a good example of a position innovation. Sometimes innovation opportunities emerge when people start to think outside the box. A very good example of a paradigm innovation is Henry Ford. He fundamentally changed the way of transportation people. He archived this neither by inventing the motor car (Invention of the motor car was 1999) nor because he changed the way of manufacture and produce an automobile (also the inventor of the conveyer production). His idea was to change the underlying model for the automobile production in this time. He changed the perspective of producing automobiles from handmade specialist product to a few wealthy customers to a mass product with a price a normal household could afford. The ensuing shift from craft to mass production was nothing short of a revolution in the way cars (and later countless other products and services) were created and delivered. This example shows that a paradigm innovation also requires intensive product and process innovation for example, in component design, in mach inery building, in the layout of the factory and in the social system around which work was organized. (Edelhoff, 2009) Not only Henry Ford changed an industry. In the last decades the shift to low-cost airlines and the increasing numbers of goods sold in the internet are recent examples of paradigm innovation changes in mental models. From Incremental to Radical Innovation Every Innovation is new, but the question is how new. So we can divide innovations between incremental and radical. (doing the same, better à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) For example, a new version of a car model is incremental while coming up with a completely new electric driven concept car which is made out of new light weight carbon fibre is radical. Similarly, further development of the accuracy and speed of a saw mill is not the same as replacing it with a computer-controlled laser cutting process. This example shows there are degrees of new innovation, running from minor, incremental improvements to radical changes which changes the way things are done and we use them. These changes are often present to a particular industry, but sometimes they are so radical and extensive that they are able to change the core of society. The major steps in todays communication and information technology have affected almost every person on this planet and will continue to gain importance. Figure : Dimension of innovation from incremental to radical from component- to system level Mapping Innovation Space In the figure below each of the 4Ps of innovation can take place along an axis. Hence the blue circle indicates the potential innovation space within a business can operate, the innovation is able to run from incremental to radical change. Whether the innovation utilizes all the space is a question of the innovation strategy. The way day-to-day change is approached within an organization differs from the approach how to handle a radical step change in products or processes. Here it is essential to keep in mind that the perceived stage of novelty is the important part and that this novelty is in the perspective of the observer. For example, in a giant, technologically advanced organization like Volkswagen or Siemens the tracking of goods from suppliers by RFID and GPS is used and implemented in day to day business while such an expensive process might be totally new and innovative for a small car dealership or food processor. (Kern, 2006) Figure : Innovation space Sustaining or Disruptive Quite a lot of innovations involve a discontinuous shift but very few bring something completely new which changes a market conditions dramatically. Most of them usually are incremental. In recent time lean thinking came up in the production and service sector, which underlines the huge possibilities of continue improvements within a firm. (Kohlstedde, 2007) However this continues improvement idea is hampered through the new approach of the platform concept or robust design. This idea bases on the development of a future general design which will dominate the market as well as used by the competitor. A good example for such a robust design is the Walkman originally developed by Sony. This first design of a portable cassette and radio player system dominated the market for the whole product lifetime of cassettes. Also car makers tend to change their development process from each single model to a platform strategy. (Wallentowitz, Freialdenhove, Olschewski, 2009) The Volkswagen AG int roduced platforms which are used for different brands of the company group. This not only saves costs but also helps them to dominate the market with faster model updates and exchanges. The platform and robust design strategy of firms is a powerful way of recover the high initial investments such as Research and Development as well as market analysis. The Challenge of Discontinues improvement The common innovation process happens in a set frame, following certain rules and ways of thinking. This game played by competitors is to innovate by doing what has been done before like product- or process innovations or even position- and paradigm innovations, but doing it better. In this competition of playing the same game some firms manage to do better than others and can gain a competitive advantage through these innovations, but the set of the game is accepted and do not change. Very rare something happens that breaks up this framework and changes how the game is played. This will not happen every day but when this arises the rules and boundaries of a market change rapidly. This will result in upcoming new opportunities and challenge the existing players in their way of working, thinking and doing business. A discontinues improvement occurs out of a technological and conditions stable market, where is a long period of continuous improvements and variations around a basic product or service. The strategy, before the discontinues improvement was, doing what we do, but better. When such an innovation happens one or more of the basic conditions like technology, markets, social, regulatory etc. change rapidly. Now the time of doing different begins and the rules of the game change so the opportunity space for new innovations appears. Such a rapid technology change is happening right now with the development of LEDs in the light market. From the invention of the originally light bulb in the late nineteenth century by Edison and Swan the light market gets more and more restricted by the government. Furthermore the development of the LED light was a major step for the whole market and will influence our daily life in the future. With this upcoming technology new enterprises emerge in the market as well as the inventor Shuji Nakamura with the company Nichia Corporation. This discontinues improvement faces the market dominating companies very hard. Either they adapt to the new light technology or they will lose market share very rapidly. In the process the underlying rules of the game change and a new opportunity space for innovation opens up. Do different conditions of this kind occur, for example, when radical change takes place along the technological frontier or when completely new markets emerge. An emerging example of this could be the replacement of the incandescent light bulb originally developed in the late nineteenth century by Edison and Swan (amongst others). This may be replaced by the solid state white light emitting diode technology patented by Nichia Chemical. This technology is 85% more energy efficient, has 16 times the life of a conventional bulb, is brighter, is more flexible in application and is likely to be subject to the scale economies associated with electronic component production. In their pioneering work on this theme Abernathy and Utterback developed a model describing the pattern in terms of three distinct phases. Initially, under discontinuous conditions, there is what they term a fluid phase during which there is high uncertainty along two dimensions: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The target what will the new configuration be and who will want it? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The technical how will we harness new technological knowledge to create and deliver this? No one knows what the right configuration of technological means and market needs will be and so there is extensive experimentation (accompanied by many failures) and fast learning by a range of players including many new entrepreneurial businesses. Gradually these experiments begin to converge around what they call a dominant design something which begins to set up the rules of the game. This represents a convergence around the most popular (importantly not necessarily the most technologically sophisticated or elegant) solution to the emerging configuration. At this point a bandwagon begins to roll and innovation options become increasingly channeled around a core set of possibilities what Dosi calls a technological trajectory.38 It becomes increasingly difficult to explore outside this space because entrepreneurial interest and the resources which that brings increasingly focus on possibilities within the dominant design corridor. This can apply to products or processes; in both cases the key characteristics become stabilized and experimentation moves to getting the bugs out and refining the dominant design. For example, the nineteenth-century chemical industry moved from making soda ash (an essential ingredient in making soap, glass and a host of other products) from the earliest days where it was produced by burning vegetable matter through to a sophisticated chemical reaction which was carried out on a batch process (the Leblanc process) which was one of the drivers of the Industrial Revolution. This process dominated for nearly a century but was in turn replaced by a new generation of continuous processes which used electrolytic techniques and which originated in Belgium where they were developed by the Solvay brothers. Moving to the Leblanc process or the Solvay process did not happen overnight; it took decades of work to refine and improve each process, and to fully understand the chemistry and engineering required to get consistent high quality and output. The same pattern can be seen in products. For example, the original design for a camera is something which goes back to the early nineteenth century and as a visit to any science museum will show involved all sorts of ingenious solutions. The dominant design gradually emerged with an architecture which we would recognize shutter and lens arrangement, focusing principles, back plate for film or plates, etc. But this design was then modified still further for example, with different lenses, motorized drives, flash technology and, in the case of George Eastmans work, to creating a simple and relatively idiot-proof model camera (the Box Brownie) which opened up photography to a mass market. More recent development has seen a similar fluid phase around digital imaging devices. The period in which the dominant design emerges and emphasis shifts to imitation and development around it is termed the transitional phase in the Abernathy and Utterback model. Activities move from radical concept development to more focused efforts geared around product differentiation and to delivering it reliably, cheaply, with higher quality, extended functionality, etc. As the concept matures still further so incremental innovation becomes more significant and emphasis shifts to factors like cost which means efforts within the industries which grow up around these product areas tend to focus increasingly on rationalization, on scale economies and on process innovation to drive out cost and improve productivity. Product innovation is increasingly about differentiation through customization to meet the particular needs of specific users. Abernathy and Utterback term this the specific phase.* Finally the stage is set for change the scope for innovation becomes smaller and smaller whilst outside for example, in the laboratories and imaginations of research scientists new possibilities are emerging. Eventually a new technology emerges which has the potential to challenge all the by now well-established rules and the game is disrupted. In the camera case, for example, this is happening with the advent of digital photography which is having an impact on cameras and the overall service package around how we get, keep and share our photographs. In our chemical case this is happening with biotechnology and the emergence of the possibility of no longer needing giant chemical plants but instead moving to small-scale operations using live organisms genetically engineered to produce what we need. Table 1.2 sets out the main elements of this model. Although originally developed for manufactured products the model also works for services for example the early days of Internet banking were characterized by a typically fluid phase with many options and models being offered. This gradually moved to a transitional phase, build- ing a dominant design consensus on the package of services offered, the levels and nature of security and privacy support, the interactivity of website, etc. The field has now become mature with much of the competition shifting to marginal issues like relative interest rates. The pattern can be seen in many studies and its implications for innovation management are important. In particular it helps us understand why established organizations often find it hard to deal with discontinuous change. Organizations build capabilities around a particular trajectory and those who may be strong in the later (specific) phase of an established trajectory often find it hard to move into the new one. (The example of the firms which successfully exploited the transistor in the early 1950s is a good case in point many were new ventures, sometimes started by enthusiasts in their garage, yet they rose to challenge major players in the electronics industry like Raytheon.39) This is partly a consequence of sunk costs and commitments to existing technologies and markets and partly because of psychological and institutional barriers. 40 They may respond but in slow fashion and they may make the mistake of giving responsibility for the new development to those whose current activities would be threatened by a shift.41 Importantly, the fluid or ferment phase is characterized by co-existence of old and new technologies and by rapid improvements of both.41,42 (It is here that the so-called TABLE sailing ship effect can often be observed, in which a mature technology accelerates in its rate of improvement as a response to a competing new alternative as was the case with the development of sailing ships in competition with newly emerging steamship technology.43,44 Whilst some research suggests existing incumbents do badly, we need to be careful here. Not all existing players do badly many of them are able to build on the new trajectory and deploy/leverage their accumulated knowledge, networks, skills and financial assets to enhance their competence through building on the new opportunity. 42à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   Equally whilst it is true that new entrants often small entrepreneurial firms play a strong role in this early phase we should not forget that we see only the successful players. We need to remember that there is a strong ecological pressure on new entrants which means only the fittest or luckiest survive. It is more helpful to suggest that there is something about the ways in which innovation is managed under these conditions which poses problems. Good practice of the steady-state kind described above is helpful in the mature phase but can actively militate against the entry and success in the fluid phase of a new technology.46 How do enterprises pick up signals about changes if they take place in areas where they dont normally do research? How do they understand the needs of a market which doesnt exist yet but which will shape the eventual package which becomes the dominant design? If they talk to their existing customers the likelihood is that those customers will tend to ask for more of the same, so which new users should they talk to and how do they find them? The challenge seems to be to develop ways of managing innovation not only under steady-state but also under the highly uncertain, rapidly evolving and changing conditions which result from a dislocation or discontinuity. The kinds of organizational behaviour needed here will include things like agility, flexibility, the ability to learn fast, the lack of preconceptions about the ways in which things might evolve, etc. and these are often associated with new small firms. There are ways in which large and established players can also exhibit this kind of behaviour but it does often conflict with their normal ways of thinking and working. Extensive studies have shown the power of shifting technological boundaries in creating and transforming industry structures for example, in the case of the typewriter, the computer and the automobile. Such transformations happen relatively often no industry is immune (see Box 1.3 for an example). Worryingly the source of the technology which destabilizes an industry often comes from outside that industry. So even those large incumbent firms which take time and resources to carry out research to try and stay abreast of developments in their field may find that they are wrong-footed by the entry of something which has been developed in a different field. The massive changes in insurance and financial services which have characterized the shift to online and telephone provision were largely developed by IT professionals often working outside the original industry.6 In extreme cases we find what is often termed the not invented here NIH effect, where a firm finds out about a technology but decides against following it up because it does not fit with their perception of the industry or the likely rate and direction of its technological development. Famous examples of this include Kodaks rejection of the Polaroid process or Western Unions dismissal of Bells telephone invention. In a famous memo dated 1876 the board commented, this telephone has too many shortcomings to be seriously considered as a means of communication. The device is inherently of no value to us.